Greek revolution 1rst part- Patriarch Gregorios

In five days we have the 190th anniversary of the Declaration of the Greek revolution. Thus these days i will post a series of relative posts concerning some secondary figures of the revolution that are not so famous as others.

Patriarch Gregorius V

Patriarch Gregorios

Under the name Georgios Aggelopoulos, he was born in Dimitsana by poor parents. He received Greek education in the city which at the time was a center of learning. Georgios was attracted to monastic life and the teachings of the church. He became a monk and he took the name Gregorios.




His will for learning made him leave Dimitsana for a bigger city. He went to Smyrna where he got acquainted with the metropolitan of Smyrna and later he was appointed as his archdeacon. Gregorios' piety and  virtues helped him to promote quickly in the ecclesiastical hierarchy and at a young age(39 y.o) he succeeded to become the metropolitan of Smyrna.

The arrest of the patriarch

Soon he became renowned throughout the christian population of the Ottoman empire and everyone rejoiced when he was elected ecumenical patriarch of  Constantinople in 1797.
This period was  full of difficulties for the patriarch. The Ottoman intolerance was increasing at the time because of the economical and political deckline of the empire and because of the revolutionary tendencies of the christian populations of the empire that were triggered by the nationalisms which were inspired by the French revolution of 1789.


His contribution as a patriarch was great. He founded new schools a printing press and his main aim was to protect his christian subjects. Because of his pro-Greek activity he raised suspicions at the Ottoman court. He was twice exiled in Aghio oros(Holy mountain)  and returned back to his duties as a patriarch.


At the eve of the Greek revolution many worrying messages were coming to the Sultan from allover Greece.As a result of the outbreak of the revolution the Sultan ordered an unprecedented slaughter of Greeks as a revenge. The patriarch for typical reasons denounced the revolution but the Sultan was sure he had some contribution  in this.

Gregorios' corpse is thrown at the sea. 

In 18th April 1821 one month after the outbreak of the revolution right after he finished the Sunday mass for Easter he was dethroned and arrested. He was hunged in front of the main gate of the Patriarchate.For three days his corpse was hunging there as an example. Then he was delivered to some people who dragged him throughout the city and then they threw him at the sea of Bosporus. Fortunately a Greek merchant ship passing by found the corpse and brought it to Odessa which at the time hosted a prosperous greek community.
In Odessa he was buried by the Russian state with the honours of a patriarch. In 1871 the Greek state asked for his relic to be returned to Athens. In Athens he was buried at the metropolitan church and was declared an ethnomartyr and a saint.




Source :Biographies of the heros of the Greek Revolution (Ήρωες της Ελληνικής επαναστάσεως) by Alexandros Philadelpheus .publication: 1900 
 Translation is made by me.

Aris Velouchiotis- The leader of the ELAS ressistance force against the Nazis

Thanasis Claras(his real name) was born in 1905 in Lamia. He was later destined to be the leader of the biggest military ressistance force in the Nazi occupied Europe. Descended from a wealthy family of lawyers he followed his own route. In 1929 he got his degree in agriculture and later he joined the Greek Communist party.

Ironically in his youth he was a pacifist that's why he joined the Greek CP which was the only one having antimilitaristic ideas.It's worth to note that during this period the Greek government is lead by a military regime with Metaxas as prime minister.Because of the economic crisis most of the countries of Europe were lead by right wing  parties or the military. The regime of Greece was deeply anti-communist and considered the communist party members outlaws. Velouchiotis life changed when he joined the communist party of Greece.
As a member of the cp he spent his military service at the working battalions. Later he was sent to prison in the island of Aigina.(the communists who were not renouncing the greek CP were sent to exile in the islands of the Aegean).

He achieved to escape but he was arrested again in 1939. Eventually he signed the CP renouncement to get free after a command by the general secretary of the CP.Velochiotis fought as an artillery corporal at the mountains of Pindus against  the Italians during the WW2. Eventually the Musolini with the help of the Hitler's tanks and the Bulgarian army established a triple occupation in Greece.

While everything was in disorder Velouchiotis had already began his ressistance. While the Germans were entering the country the Greek king and the government had already fled from the country. A pro German government that was formed signed truce with the Germans and  commanded the Greek forces to disarm themselves and give up their weapons. However Velouchiotis didn't do that. He return with his battlalion in full arms in southern Greece and he destroyed some greek airplanes that were to be delivered to the Germans.

He returned back to Athens to find old comrades  and contact with the Communist party for the organisation of  a ressistance force.The situation was difficult. Many comrades who would be able to fight had died in war or were in jails or in exile and many citizens under the fear of the Nazis became their collaborators.

After many efforts the National liberation front was created in 1941 and its military branch ELAS(Greek peoples' liberation army became active in the mountains of central Greece. In the Eurytania perfecture was the first village that Velouchiotis liberated with his army. There was the time he got his alternative name. He presented himself to the local population  as Aris(from the god of war) Velouchiotis(from a local mountain called Velouchi) for obvious reasons.

Later he was engaged in battles mainly against the Italian occupation forces and he achieved to take much of their weaponry plus capturing Italian soldiers for trading them for political prisoners. However the Italians to avoid recognition of the ressistance force refused to trade prisoners and instead executed them. Velouchiotis as a response executed his Italian prisoners.Many historians accuse him for this action.
Generally his activity lead to the  creation of a free zone in the mountains of Greece with administration by Eam members.

Velouchiotis' success  and popularity was envied by certain communist party mebers and they seeked a way to remove him from the military operations of the ressistance.He was invited in a panhellenic convention of the CP in Athens. It would be dangerous for Velouchiotis to go to Athens as he was the most wanted man by the occupation government. Velouchiotis achieved to come to Athens initially disguised as a priest and later as a civilian(he shaved his beard). At the convention he persuaded everyone about his qualities and eventually he wasn't replaced .

The British waching the Communist(Soviet influenced) EAM prevailing supported an another ressistance group called EDES and they were supplying it with weaponry. However EDES wasn't as strong as ELAS and at the most famous historical event of the Greek ressistance the destruction of the bridge of Gorgopotamos the British had to collaborate with ELAS and Velouchiotis. Nevertheless the British from the next day propagated that EDES was the only responsible for blowing the bridge.

In 1943 ELAS had reached the peak of its power. The Greek cp was worried cause the ressistance force had grown so strong that they wouldn't be able to control it anymore for their aims.Thus they ordered the officers of  ELAS to turn from an irregular force to a professional army. Velouchiotis strongly dissagreed with this development.

When the Nazis started evacuating Greece a big struggle for dominance began among the Communist party and the British backed government in exile. The British landed in Athens and Velouchiotis once again knew that they came to occupy and like he had done after Greece surrendered to the Nazis he also did in 1945.
After many fights at the streets and the neighbours of Athens between EAM and ELAS members against Britsh forces the CP agreed to give up its weapons(Varkiza agreement) and seek dominance through politics.

Velouchiotis knew that this was a mistake  he refused to give up his weapons  and fled back to the mountains. He attempted to create anew ressistance force against the British but he didn't find enthusiastic response.
Moreover the situation became worse. The general secretary of the greek CP denounced him and declered him wanted. After this Velouchiotis continuously chased by enemies and dissapointed by the turn of events commited suicide in 16th June 1945.

Ioannis Tzernotas (Tsernotabey)

Sultan Selim I

During the reign of the Ottoman Sultan Selim I(1515-1520), the Ottoman empire expanded towards the muslim world and annexed the Mamelukan territories of Syria and Egypt.
Ioannis Tzernotas,a Greek soldier of the Christian Spahis(timariot cavalry) of the Ottoman army, along with other christian Spahis  participated in the Egyptian campaign. The sultan himself highly esteemed Tsernotas and sources mention that he trusted his opinion about various issues.
Tzernotas was descended from Morea( Peloponnesos). Probably he owned a timar(fief) there as an exchange for his military service to the Sultan. It is reported that he rebuilt a church in a town near Patras which was burnt to the ground in 1500 and he contributed to the building of other constructions that bear his name. His name is also attested  in various oral traditions.
During the reign of Selim I the relations between the christians(predominantly Greek) and muslims in the empire were at very good level.This period of tolerance was mainly encouraged by the sultan himself. Selim was recorded to have reduced the incidents of christian oppression and intolerance.

Morea(Southern Greece)

However the next sultan Suleyman I, was not as tolerant as his predecessor . There were uprisings reported in 1533 in southern Greece against Ottoman rule which meant that the situation had changed. Suleyman the magnificent as his historical nickname was, had a hostile attitude towards the non-muslim populations of the empire such as the Christians and the Jews.For instance in Greece he attempted to take by force the timars that were given to Christian Spahis  and likely this triggered some rebellions which are recorded in this time.
During Suleyman's reign Tzernotas may have presumingly lost a significant part of his property that he acquired serving as a Spahi .

Ottoman era Sipahis

Ioannis Tzernotas was born in the area of Kalavryta in Achaia which is in northwestern Peloponnese. Little is known about his family.He got in contact with the Sultan when one day as he was plowing his field, he found such a large trasure that he couldn't keep it for himself so he had to offer it to the sultan. According to sources the treasure was used partly for the expenses of the Egyptian campaign.
Tsernotas along with 2.500 more christian spahis participated in the campaign in Egypt and he was attested to be the flag carrier of the battalion of the christian cavalry. The ottomans envied him for his valor in the battle cause in the crucial battle of Ridaniya(1517) while the Ottomans couldn't break the Mameluk lines Tzernotas took the initiative and charged with his battalion carrying his flag and succeeded to break the lines of the Mameluks opening the way for Cairo the capital.Eventually the city was sacked and the last Mameluk sultan was hanged at the gate of Cairo.
After the campaign Tzernotas was awarded the title of bey and acquired timars in Peloponnese.As it is aforementioned he rebuilt a whole church and he founded two villages in Achaia.He is also  reported to have built many public constructions like bridges wells etc. He was buried in a monastery in Peloponnese.

Flag of the Greek sipahis

The only historical reference about his descendants is about Ioannis Tzernotabeys(probably his grandchild) who participated at the battle of Lepanto in 1571.The same person is also recorded to have participated in the organisation of a rebellion against the weakened Ottoman empire after its  heavy casualties from the battle of Lepanto. Eventually the uprising was unsuccesful  Ioannis Tzernotabeys was arrested by the Ottomans and suffered a death by torture.

source: Based on: http://lykawn.blogspot.com/2010/11/blog-post.html  translation made by me

The institution of slavery in ancient Greece

"We will have a real democracy when there will be no slaves and poor people"Theramenes(in Xenophon's Hellenica)

The ancient civilizations in antiquity, all had slave based economies. When a state subdued an another state automatically the deafeated people would become slaves and wither they would be freed by ransom from their families or they would be sold at the slave markets which were the heavy industry of the ancient world.

Many scholars and authors focus generally on the institution of slavery in ancient Greece. Why does this happen?
Ancient Greece was supposed to have an advanced civilization and many democratic city-states. Therefore the modern-age scholars argue that the Greeks should be negative about this institution.

It is a common mistake for people to believe that slavery had the same characteristics during  the whole human history. There are different types of slavery that we can find in  history. Yes i will agree , slavery is slavery but there is a difference in the type of restriction on slaves and the  treatment by their masters . For example the word slavery has been closely linked with the African slaves and the age of the colonization of the world. Thus when somebody hears about slavery in ancient Greece or Rome automatically connects it with the type of slavery in the age of exploration.

Slavery in ancient Greece


First of all we must define a huge difference in meanings here. Slave is a word that doesn't appear earlier than the 7th century A.D. Actually the word slave derives from the word Slav. Slavs were a group of tribes that invaded the eastern Europe during the great migrations.
In ancient Greece we find the word δούλος(doulos) which means servant/serf. The great Greek philosophers didn't criticize the institution itself maybe because for the time they found it fundamental for the survival of an "advanced" civilization. However we see that Plato in his book νόμοι(nomee) which means laws urged the Greeks to treat their slaves as equal human beings.Indeed generally the servants in ancient Greece were in a much better position(if we could say that at all) than slaves of other eras or their contemporaries in other regions of the world.
The paradox is that if we move in older times where ancient greek history merges with mythology we see that servants are almost free men. Homer in his epics describe many cases of close master-slave relationship.
The highlighted example is in the Odyssey where the sheppard Eumaeus remains loyal to his master despite his absence for so many years.Telemachus the son of Odysseus was calling him grandpa which obviously shows his strong bonds with his servant.
Continuing with the Homer's epics we see that Penelope was doing the housework along with the her female servants and Odysseus was doing works that would fit for slaves like his bed.

Back to the historical times of clasical Greece we see in the historian  Xenophon we read about a daily life setting where Ischomachus a friend of philosopher Socrates brought his wife for a first time in their home to show her how to manage it. Among his sayings he also utters the following: "Among your duties there will be one that maybe frustrating for you.You shall have to treat an ill servant and take care of him until he recovers." And she responded :"This is going to be a pleasant duty for me. If those that i helped to recover owe a favour to me are more devoted than to me than before".(Xenophon Economicos VII)

To have a better understanding of the institution in Ancient Greece we should see how it was implemented in the Athenian society. Slaves in Athenian society were as we could say today the working class. They were cookers ,teachers ,farmers,  policemen(city militia) and road cleaners etc. Many of them according to their duty in the society had also their own house and salary.There were also slaves who were literaly working as slaves at the mills and the mines of Athens. These were usually enslaved criminals and slaves who were unable to fit in the athenian society either because of their character or their behaviour.
The laws in Athens were severe concerning the slaves.For a slave to be executed there should be a special reason imposed to the court.  A slave who was maltreated by his master could seek asylum in a temple and request a new master. The murder of a slave was equally was an equal crime as a murder of a free person.
A slave could buy his freedom for a certain amount of money and the state itself sometimes freed its slaves mainly for war purposes.A typical example is Miltiades the general of Athens who freed all the slaves who fought against the Persians.
The most important fact that shows the treatment of slaves in Ancient Greece is that there were no slave uprisings recorded. The only uprisings that were recorded were heilot(Spartan slaves) uprisings because there indeed slavery was harsh. Even for free people the Spartan way of life was harsh.In 309 BC it was estimated that the slaves in Athens were 400.000 while the free population were 31.000. These numbers show a big disproportion of slaves and free people.It is sure that if they wanted they could have easily revolted.

Nevertheless slavery was not the same in all parts of Greece. In different regimes other than Democracies of course the conditions for slaves were worse. There were no laws protecting them and running away was punished  with execution.There are also sources that imply sex-slavery  in ancient Greece which was considered to be a Roman institution.

source: the article is partially based on the article η δουλεία στην αρχαία Ελλάδα by ellinikoarxeio.com

Likario:The Legendary Italian from Vicenza.

Kastelli :Likario's base of operations in Euboea(Negreponte). 

Likario was born in  Karystus  in the Greek island of Euvoia at the begining of the 13th century. His father was a mercenary of noble ancestry from Vicenza and his mother was Greek, perhaps she was too from from Karystus.As a character he was from a young age a restless person. When he became adult(15-18 years old) his father tired from his bad attitude gave him some money and sent him away forever.


He didn't go far away, at least at the begining. He visited Negreponte(present day Chalkida) which was the capital of the the duchy of the island which had the same name.There somehow he achieved to be hired at the personal guard of the count of Negreponte Giberto de Verona(Guiberto Dalle Carceri).Apparently because of his father's noble ancestry he may have learned at a young age how to use a sword.
At this stage of his life there were series of events that would affect his later deeds critically. The island of Negreponte was divided in three counties. In one of those the seat of the count was vacant as he probably died without heirs and whoever married his widow would take also the 35% of the island.Her name was Felicia and  somehow she met Likario and fell in love with him.
This relationship was unacceptable for the morals of the time. It was impossible for an inferior to marry someone of noble birth. The family of Felicia was criticizing her and condemned this relationship. Their intentions although may not have been purely moralistic.Felicia was under the protection of Lord Giberto's family(she was Guiberto's sister). This meant that if they could keep her unmarried they would be able to control her and thus control 60% of the island. Likario may also have maintained this relationship because of his ambition to become someday a great man(maybe he had a father rejection complex)

Likario and Felicia married in secret and when Felicia's family learned it they got really angry.However they didn't turn to become spectators of this situation. Apparently the noble family had strong bonds with the church and the Vatican and they succeded to cancel this wedding.

Likario got furious with his former master and left Negreponte heading to the south of the island somewhere near his homeland. There he established a lair and became a pirate. He was very succesful in his new "career" He pillaged the surrounding villages and he also sailed to assault merchant ships passing nearby. Because of his success he became famous for his smart pirate tactics and for the fear he caused in the region.

Some years passed but his hatred for the count had never ceased. As a pirate he wasn't able to harm him so he got into contact with the Byzantine emperor who was the main enemy of the Latin duchies of Greece.
The emperor knowing already his qualities offered him a position in the Byzantine army and later in the Byzantine navy.Meanwhile his wife Felicia had long before died in the island under no clear circumastances.

Map of the island of Negreponte(modern Euboea)

She was 42 years old when she died while Likario was much more younger. You can make your own speculations on how she may have died or how she was killed.

Continuing with the history Likario gained the trust of the emperor and he was given imperial forces at his disposal for the task of conquering the whole island of Euvoia for the Byzantine empire. If he succeeded it as a reward the emperor would appoint him Lord of  the whole island. The Byzantines had already won in several battles against the Latins in their effort to reconquer Greece and had conquered an important fort in Euvoia.

Likario reinforced with Byzantine units invaded Euvoia in 1273 A.D and conquered all its fortresses in a short time. The only fortress that was still Latin was the capital of the island Negreponte .The count of Negreponte had already sent calls for aid from the Latin Duchy of Athens and the principality of Achaia. It was the year 1275 and Likario had left the island for a while to fight in Minor Asia the enemies of Byzantium.The prince of Achaia achieved to reclaim some important forts relieving the city of Negreponte but his victories made him so overconfident that he immediately attacked to reclaim the whole island with only 700 experienced knights.In one of    his battles he lost a significant portion of his army and eventually withdrew back to Achaia.
In 1276 after his victory in the battle of Demetrias against the Latins Likario renewed his contract with the emperor about the island and he was again offered the seat of the governor of Negreponte and instead he would send 200 knights of the island in the service of the emperor. In the same year he was appointed as Megas doux(leader of the navy) of the empire and he became the first foreigner to take such a high title in the Byzantine empire.
Likario invaded again Euvoia with the whole Byzantine navy at his disposal and easily recaptured all the forts that were lost during the Prince's of Achaia campaigns.He didn't dare to besiege the capital and instead he turned to capture other Aegean islands for the Byzantine empire.
In 1280 reinforced with Catalan and Sicilian mercenaries he returned  to capture his "big desire" the capital Negreponte. The brother of Felicia along with the Duke of Athens went out of the castle to deal with him. Likario achieved an important victory against their army in a village near Negreponte.In the battle it was reported that Guiberto was killed and the duke of Athens was sent as a captive in Constantinople were he was perhaps executed in public display.
The reaction of the Latins was admirably quick despite the noble casualties. The lord of Argos Iakobo de la Roche organised well the defences of Negreponte and the Venetian fleet reclaimed many of the islands that were captured by Likario. By failing to take Negreponte Likario and the Byzantine army withdrew from the island which was reclaimed by the Lombards in 1289. The traces of Likario are lost in history since 1290.
He probably died some years later in Constantinople.

Cardinal Bessarion

Cardinal Bessarion

Basileios Bessarion was born in Trebizond between 1389-1395 . At a young age he went to Constantinople and became a student of the archbishop Dositheos who was said to be a wise man. Dositheos saw the promising potential of Bessarion and sent him to the bishop of Sillymbria to teach him rhetorics and philosophy.

After a few years he went to Peloponnese or Morea as it was called at this time to become a student of the great neo-platonist philosopher Georgios Gemistos Pletho.There he was able to master his philosophical knowledge and acquire more knowledge on the field of mathematics.
In Peloponese Bessario became a very popular person because of his knowledge and eloquence. When he was preaching at the church all the people were listening speechless every word he was uttering. His fame soon passed the borders of Peloponnese and reached the capital of Byzantium and even further the Empire of Trebizond. The emperor of Trebizond first sent ambassadors to invite him to Trebizond in Pontos.

Bessarion chose to go to Constantinople instead where he was welcomed by the emperor himself. In 1437 he was appointed archbishop of Nicaea by the Patriarch.The next year he escorted the emperor along with other  scholars and church officials to the synod of Florence were the union of the Eastern and Western church would be ratified.
At the conference Bessario and Markos Eugenikos were the people who excelled with their knowledge and argumentation but while the latter was denouncing this union the Bessario was a pro-unionist and when an agreement was reached he signed it.



Upon his return to Constantinople the situation was no longer good for him.The majority of the population didn't want this union and only a minority including the emperor were unionists. Under this situation of political and religious turmoil Bessario returned back to Italy and defected to the side of the Pope. As a reward he was appointed Cardinal in 1439. He was under the protection of Pope Nicolaus V who as many other people saw that he was a charismatic person. Bessarion proved his talent when he was sent to Bononia to cease a civil war.Not only he succeeded but he also built a gymnasium promoting the education of the youth. The people of Bononia as a gratitude for his service they left a public script writting the following: Bessarioni episcopo Tusculano,cardinali niceno,benefactori nostri.


In 1455 the Pope died and the Bessario as a cardinal he had to return back to Rome to participate at the elections for the new Pope. He would be a favourite to become the new pope if there was not the the cardinal and archbishop of Avignon Alanus who in a speech full of religious fanatism and hatred argued that it would be preposterous to make an ex-schismatic the head of the catholic church. His main arguments were that even though Bessario became a catholic he still maintained his beard that only Orthodox clerics had and that he was still loyal to some aspects of the doctrine of Orthodoxy.
The new pope named Kallistus was also fond of Bessarion. He appointed him to call for a new crusade to Constantinople. However Bessario failed on this task because the European kingdoms in this period were having their own wars.

In  1458 a new pope was elected called Pius II. He was more active than his predecessor calling for a big conference of all kings in Mantua. In this conference the rhetoric of Bessario for the urge of a crusade against the Ottoman empire which in 1453 had already conquered Constantinople stunned everyone but once more the civil war between the Germanic states stalled all preparations for this crusade.
Bessario didn't give up, he went to Venice to speak about the need of a crusade and then he was sent by the Pope in Germany to try and find a solution for the civil war. In Nuremberg he invited all the German leaders of the opposing sides and with a touching speech  he argued once again the need for a ceasefire and a crusade against the infidels. But once again he failed because the zeal and hatred of the Germans for each other was higher than their will to fight in a crusade. Disappointed the cardinal left Germany and went to Vienna to meet the emperor himself and try to persuade him but there he also found the internal strife obstacle.


 He returned back to Rome mentally and physically exhausted. His friend the Pope Pius  prepared a crusade despite the indefference of the European kings. He was so sure for its success that he appointed Bessarion Patriarch of Constantinople. Bessario would start with a fleet from Venice and he would meet the Pope's army which was lead by himself in Ancona. But once more irony and the bad circumastances terminated the crusade. When he was about to start the Pope fell ill and died the same year.

In 1471 he was once more a favourite for becoming the pope. There are dubious narrations about this election. Some historians say that some cardinals approached Bessario to vote him in exchange of benefits whom Bessario as a man of morality  rejected and to avenge him they all vote his main opponent candidate.
Others say that there was a plastography of votes in favour of the new pope and against Bessario. What happened in real noone knows.However the new pope named Sixtus IV was also fond of a crusade against the Ottomans and sent  Bessario in France to cease the hostilities between the king and the duke of Bourgundy. But his meeting with the king was short and a failure. Once the King saw the cardinal with the beard he had an outburst and cried the following :Barbara graeca genus retinent, barbara solebant.
Dissapointed by this last effort and succesive failure he returned back to Ravenna where he died in November 19th ,1472.
Bessarion was a pious man with many attributes that could make him a succesful Pope if his beard and nationality weren't there as obstacles. It's sure that his choice to join the Catholic church was the best cause if he remained in the east he would remain an anonymous priest or rather worse he would have died in the siege of Constantinople.

Bessario was a pro humanist and a contributor in the Italian Renaissance.He conveyed in Italy the Neoplatonic ideas of his teacher Gemistos Pletho and wrote many manuscripts and traslations of ancient Philosophers,  he helped Greek-Byzantine refugees to educate themselves in the best universities of Italy and he donated his library consisting of 30.000 books to the state of Venice which today form the nucleus of the notorious biblioteca marciana of Saint Marc.

source: partially taken by the book :)Neoellēnikē philologia : viographia tōn en tois grammasi dialampsantōn Hellen̄ōn, apo tēs katalyseōs tēs Vyzantinēs Autokratorias mechri tēs Hellēnikēs ethnegersias (1453-1821) (1960)  by the author Konstantinos Sathas. 
In english: Biography of Greek scholars between the ages 1453-1821
Translation of the text is being made by me.

Mercurio Bua

Mercurio Bua

Mercurio Bua was born in 1478 in Nauplion of southern Greece. At the time the city was controlled by Venice unlike the rest of the area which was under Ottoman occupation. He fought 1496 for the Venetian army as a leader of a light cavalry corps consisted of 300 Arvanites of Southern Greece against Florence to prevent the occupation of Pisa.The next year he fought in Naples against the French who were led by King Charles VIII. At this battle he showed his excellent qualities and valor and he participated in many other battler all around Europe.
He was the son of Petros Buas and grandchild of Alexis Buas who came in Peloponese from Epirus in 1405 invited by the despot of Morea after his uncle lost the territories he ruled.
In the year 1533 the Emperor of the Holy Roman empire and king of Spain Charles V  was in discussion with the pope and the Venetians about a alliance and a decisive crusade against the Ottoman empire.
In a war council that in which the venetian general of Urbino a papal representative and Mercurio Bua participed the venetian general stated that such a campaign cannot be conducted since his country doesn't possess a large in number military force. Then Mercurios Buas took the initiative and presented his own plan. He proposed as a theater of operations the Greek penisula and he was sure that the Greek the Arvanite and the Albanian insurgents would join them in large numbers. In the end this plan was never materialized.
In the rest of his life Bua was entitled as count of Aquino and Roccasecca.

Flag given in 1510 to Mercurio Bua by Emperor Maximilian I. It features a double-headed eagle, symbol of both Byzantine and the Holy Roman empire, the Cross of Burgundy and four "B"s or firesteels, used in the Palaiologos arms, but also linked to the House of Habsburg's.

 Since 1519 he was married to the Greek Maria Boccali, the daughter of Niccolò Boccali. Maria died in 1524 leaving one son with the name Flavio. She was buried in Santa Maria di Treviso. In 1525 Mercurio married Elisabetta, daughter of Alvise Balbi. With her Mercurio had four children: Helena Maria, Curio, Polyxena and Alessandro. Elizabeth died in or before 1528 .

M. Bua died in Treviso (Italy) between 1527 and 1562 were earlier he served as Captain of a unit of 50 soldiers. He is buried in Santa Maria Maggiore in the same city. In 1562 a marble monument was erected on his tomb, made by Antonio Lombardo. In 1637 the following inscription was made on the monument:

"Mercurio Bua Comiti E. Principibus PeloponnesiEpirotarum Equitum Ductori,
Anno Salu. MDCXXXVII."

Which means "To Count Mercurio Bua, Prince of Peloponnesus, Leader of the Epirote Horsemen, Year of our Salvation, 1637". The monument also lists some of his military career.
Bua's life and heroic achievements were hymned in a very long epic poem written in vernacular Greek language by Tzanes (Ioannes) Coroneos. The latter was born in Zacynthos(western Greek island) and is assumed that was a stratioti-troubadour. This poem was found in a manuscript in Italy and was published partially by C. Hopf and entire by K. Sathas. It was written in 1519 when Coroneos was in Venice and refers to Bua's history till 1517. It consists of about 4.500 rhyming verses and contains valuable historical information. Coroneos wrote and sent to Bua also a smaller poem (“pittakion”) of about 125 verses in Greek language, too.

Juan de Fuca or Apostolos Valerianos or Ioannis Phocas

Juan de Fuca strait in Canada

Juan de Fuca was a Greek navigator who sailed for Spain under a Spanish name. His original name was Apostolos Valerianos or Ioannis fokas and he was likely born in the Greek island of Kefalonia.He was the fourth son of Emmanuel Phocas or Phocas Valerianos who was from Constantinople.Likely  his first name may have been Ioannis-Apostolos. Like many Greeks sailors at his time he  seeked a job at the Spanish navy.

He worked for 40 years as a navigator in the Spanish navy and participated in numerous expeditions.In one of them in November 1587 his ship Santa Anna was attacked by the English somewhere near modern Philippines and he was captured as a hostage losing a cargo worth of 60.000 ducats.

Later he was released and in 1588 he went to Mexico. There he was appointed by the viceroy of Mexico Luis de Velaseo to explore the Northern shores of N. America and find the  mythical strait of Anian which alledgedly connected the Pacific with the Atlantic ocean. He was given one small caravel at his disposal.


He made two travels. His first travel was unsuccesful because of a mutiny and he returned back to Acapulco.He then tried a second travel going this time more northern. He  sailed up the western coast of North America from Acapulco of Mexico to Vancouver Island which is in modern Canada in 1592, looking for a passage from the Pacific Ocean to the Atlantic Ocean.He was perhaps the first European to see this area. He sailed through the Strait of Juan de Fuca (which was named for him in 1725) and believed it to be the beginning of a route to the Atlantic Ocean (it is not). This strait connects the Pacific Ocean to the Puget Sound and the Georgia Strait, between the Olympic Peninsula of Washington state, USA, and Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada.
He awaited two years for a reward for his discovery  but unfortunately for him his discovery was considered dubious.He travelled to Spain in 1594 to speak to  the king in person about his discovery but again his efforts were futile.
Dissapointed he started a journey back to his homeland. In Florence he met an Englishman called John Douglas to whom he narrated his adventures. Douglas gave him a reference letter  and sent him to Mickael Locke a rich English merchant who at the time happened to be in Venice. He asked Locke to mediate to the English crown on his behalf. He hoped that the English would pay a compensation for holding him a captive by apointing him to find the Anian strait. Locke tried to communicate with English officials but there was no response. Juan de fuca couldn't afford to wait so long and continued his journey back to Kefalonia.
In 1602 Locke sent a letter to Kefalonia for Juan but he never got a response. Thus he assumed that may have died. Locke's story about Phocas' life was published in 1625 in a travel  book called "Hakluytus Posthumus or 'Purchas His Pilgrimes Contayning a History of the World in Sea Voyages and Lande Travells by Englishmen and others"  
In 1787 the British  Charles Barkley explored the area were Juan de fuca had been and confirmed the Greek navigator's discoveries by giving his name to the strait.

That's how the Spanish believed the Northern America was

Al Khazini The Greek slave who became a great Islamic scientist

Abdal Rahman al-Khazini was a Muslim of Byzantine-Greek origin who was brought to Merv as a slave by the Seljuk sultan after his victory over the Byzantine Emperor Romanos Diogenes in Mantzikert in 1071 CE.

With the Byzantine army defeated the Turks raided all the Asian holdings of the Byzantine empire and sent thousands of Greeks at the slave markets of the east. One of them turned to become Al-Khazini.

His master, al-Khazini, gave him his name and the best possible education in mathematics, philosophy, science and astronomy.

Al Khazini

Al-Khazini was also a pupil of the famous Persian poet and mathematician Omar Khayyám (d 1131 CE) who was living in Merv at that time. Very  little is known about his life, but it is known that he was a man who refused rewards and handout sent to him by the wife of the emir.

He preferred to live a simple life on a  meager income which he earned himself.  The exact date of his death is also not known, but it is believed that he died by the middle of 12th century.

Al-Khazini was a great physicist, astronomer, mathematician, philosopher and an alchemist. He is better known for his contributions to physics.

His treatise; Kitab Mizan al-Hikma (The Book of  Balance of Wisdom) written in four volumes, remained an important part of  physics among the Muslim scientists. The first volume deals with his predecessor’s theories of centers of gravity, including al-Biruni, al-Razi and Omar Khayam. In this book al-Khazini draws attention to the Greek philosopher’s failure to differentiate clearly between force, mass and weight. He explains  how the weight of the air  and  its  density decrease with altitude. By looking at his predecessor’s science, al-Khazini provides crucial records of their contributions that could have remained unknown or lost.

The remaining treatises deal with hydrostatics, most particularly the determination of specific gravities. Al-Khazini goes to extreme lengths in describing the equipment necessary to obtain accurate results. He was very careful in the preparation of his equipment and materials while doing his experiment.

He carried  out various  experiments with his balances with rigorous attention to scientific accuracy. His interest  to  determine the specific gravities of precious metals and alloys had some commercial purposes in mind. With the accurate value of specific gravity he could determine the purity of gold and silver without any chemical treatment. To determine the specific gravity of a substance, its weight has to be known in air and water, and the volume of air and water displaced, so most researchers used water balances in their experiments.

Using the same instruments  Al-Khazini made repeated experiment with several metals and gemstones. He also measured the specific gravities of many other substances like salt, clay, liquids and amber–a total of fifty one substances.

He developed his own hydrostatic balance, and specialized balances which was extremely precise. He could find the weight of an object on the microgram level, a precision only surpassed in the 20th century.

In another experiment, he discovered that the density of water is greater nearer the earth’s center, which was proved by Roger Bacon two centuries later. Al-Khazini defines heaviness in traditional terms, he says in his book;

“A heavy body is one which is moved by an inherent force, constantly, towards the center of the world.  I mean that a heavy body is one which has a force moving it towards the central point, and constantly in the direction of the center, without being moved by that force in any different direction; and that the force referred to is inherent in the body” 

It appears that what al-Khazini meant by gravity, is both an idea similar to the modern concept of gravitational potential energy.  In any case, al-Khazini appears to have been the first to propose that the gravity of a body varies with its distance from the center of the Earth. In his first sense of the word gravity, the concept was not considered again, till five centuries later by Isaac Newton.

Al-Khazini contributions   in  astronomy includes a astronomical treatise Zij as-Sanjari or  ‘Sinjaric Tables’. In this treatise he gave a description of his construction of a 24 hour water clock designed for astronomical purposes which he invented. This was an early example of an astronomical clock. He computed the positions of 46 stars for the year  (1115-16 CE). and tables for the observation of celestial bodies at the latitude of Merv. His astronomical treatise was translated into Greek and was studied in the Byzantine Empire.

Al-Khazini’s book Risala fi’l-alat (Treatise on Instruments) consisted of seven chapters in which he has described about a number of highly specialized  and innovative mechanical devices. These instruments include dioptra, (a classical surveying instrument) triangular instruments, triquetrum, (an instrument to find altitude of heavenly bodies) quadrant, sextant and the astrolabe.

Al Khazini, no doubt was a great physicist and astronomer  of the middle age who made tremendous advancement in the field of physics and instrument-making. Charles Jillispe, editor of the Dictionary of Scientific Bibliography proclaimed him the greatest of any time.

text source:http://muslimmedianetwork.com  By Syed Aslam

Hypatia the first female Greek philosopher astronomer and mathematician in history

Hypatia

There was a woman at Alexandria named Hypatia, daughter of the philosopher Theon, who made such attainments in literature and science, as to far surpass all the philosophers of her own time. Having succeeded to the school of Plato and Plotinus, she explained the principles of philosophy to her auditors, many of whom came from a distance to receive her instructions. On account of the self-possession and ease of manner, which she had acquired in consequence of the cultivation of her mind, she not unfrequently appeared in public in presence of the magistrates. Neither did she feel abashed in going to an assembly of men. For all men on account of her extraordinary dignity and virtue admired her the more. Yet even she fell victim to the political jealousy which at that time prevailed. For as she had frequent interviews with Orestes, it was calumniously reported among the Christian populace, that it was she who prevented Orestes from being reconciled to the bishop. Some of them, therefore, hurried away by a fierce and bigoted zeal, whose ringleader was a reader named Peter, waylaid her returning home, and dragging her from her carriage, they took her to the church called Caesareum, where they completely stripped her, and then murdered her with tiles.* After tearing her body in pieces, they took her mangled limbs to a place called Cinaron, and there burnt them. This affair brought not the least opprobrium, not only upon Cyril, but also upon the whole Alexandrian church. And surely nothing can be farther from the spirit of Christianity than the allowance of massacres, fights, and transactions of that sort. This happened in the month of March during Lent, in the fourth year of Cyril's episcopate, under the tenth consulate of Honorius, and the sixth of Theodosius.

Notes
* The Greek word is ostrakois, literally "oystershells," but the word was also applied to brick tiles used on the roofs of houses.

source: Socrates Scholasticus,  Ecclesiastical History

HYPATIA, daughter of Theon the geometer and philosopher of Alexandria, was herself a well-known philosopher. She was the wife of the philosopher Isidorus, and she flourished under the Emperor Arcadius. Author of a commentary on Diophantus, she also wrote a work called The Astronomical Canon and a commentary on The Conics of Apollonius. She was torn apart by the Alexandrians and her body was mocked and scattered through the whole city. This happened because of envy and her outstanding wisdom especially regarding astronomy. Some say Cyril was responsible for this outrage; others blame the Alexandrians' innate ferocity and violent tendencies for they dealt with many of their bishops in the same manner, for example George and Proterius.

Rachel Weisz starring as Hypatia in the movie Agora

Regarding Hypatia the Philosopher and the Sedition of the Alexandrians

Hypatia was born, reared, and educated in Alexandria. Since she had greater genius than her father, she was not satisfied with his instruction in mathematical subjects; she also devoted herself diligently to all of philosophy.

The woman used to put on her philosopher's cloak and walk through the middle of town and publicly interpret Plato, Aristotle, or the works of any other philosopher to those who wished to hear her. In addition to her expertise in teaching she rose to the pinnacle of civic virtue. She was both just and chaste and remained always a virgin. She was so beautiful and shapely that one of her students fell in love with her and was unable to control himself and openly showed her a sign of his infatuation. Uninformed reports had Hypatia curing him of his affliction with the help of music. The truth is that the story about music is corrupt. Actually, she gathered rags that had been stained during her period and showed them to him as a sign of her unclean descent and said, "This is what you love, young man, and it isn't beautiful!" He was so affected by shame and amazement at the ugly sight that he experienced a change of heart and went away a better man.

Such was Hypatia, as articulate and eloquent in speaking as she was prudent and civil in her deeds. The whole city rightly loved her and worshipped her in a remarkable way, but the rulers of the city from the first envied her, something that often happened at Athens too. For even if philosophy itself had perished, nevertheless, its name still seems magnificent and venerable to the men who exercise leadership in the state. Thus it happened one day that Cyril, bishop of the opposition sect [i.e. Christianity] was passing by Hypatia's house, and he saw a great crowd of people and horses in front of her door. Some were arriving, some departing, and others standing around. When he asked why there was a crowd there and what all the fuss was about, he was told by her followers that it was the house of Hypatia the philosopher and she was about to greet them. When Cyril learned this he was so struck with envy that he immediately began plotting her murder and the most heinous form of murder at that. For when Hypatia emerged from her house, in her accustomed manner, a throng of merciless and ferocious men who feared neither divine punishment nor human revenge attacked and cut her down, thus committing an outrageous and disgraceful deed against their fatherland. The Emperor was angry, and he would have avenged her had not Aedesius been bribed. Thus the Emperor remitted the punishment onto his own head and family for his descendant paid the price. The memory of these events is still vivid among the Alexandrians.

The first centuries AD christians Jews and Pagans fought for prevalence.

source: Damascius's Life of Isidore, reproduced in The Suda